Topic 17 of 33 - Your Place in the Learning Journey
Earlier and Later Rulers
The great empires - Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, and Rome - are the dominant political forces of the biblical world. But they do not tell the whole story. Biblical Israel was also shaped by earlier powers and closer neighbors whose influence runs through the text in ways that are easy to miss. Egypt towers over the early chapters of the biblical narrative. The Philistines define much of the early monarchy period. The Arameans of Syria were persistent rivals. Edom, Moab, and Ammon appear throughout the prophets. And after the Maccabean revolt, the Hasmonean dynasty and then Herod the Great ruled Judea in the decades before the New Testament opens.
Egypt deserves special mention. It is not just the setting of the Exodus - it is a constant presence throughout the Old Testament. Israel and Judah repeatedly turned to Egypt for military alliance against the major empires, a strategy the prophets consistently condemned. Egyptian culture, religion, and wisdom literature also left traces in the biblical text that scholars continue to study. The wisdom tradition of Proverbs, for example, shows close parallels with Egyptian wisdom texts.
The Hasmonean dynasty and Herod the Great are particularly important for New Testament readers. The Hasmoneans created the political and religious divisions - between Pharisees, Sadducees, and other groups - that are still present when Jesus begins his ministry. Herod the Great rebuilt the Jerusalem Temple on a magnificent scale, providing the physical setting for much of the Gospel narrative. Understanding these rulers fills in the background that the New Testament simply assumes its readers already know.
Key Rulers and Peoples Beyond the Major Empires
| Ruler / People | Period of Influence | Role in the Biblical Story |
|---|---|---|
| Egypt | Throughout the Old Testament | Setting of the Exodus; recurring military ally and rival; source of wisdom literature parallels; refuge for the holy family (Matthew 2) |
| The Philistines | ~1200-600 BCE | Dominant rivals during the period of the Judges and the early monarchy; Samson, Samuel, Saul, and David all contend with them; Goliath is a Philistine |
| The Arameans (Syria) | ~1000-732 BCE | Persistent rivals and occasional allies of Israel and Judah; Damascus is their capital; significant in the stories of Elijah and Elisha |
| Edom, Moab, Ammon | Throughout the Old Testament | Neighboring peoples descended from Esau (Edom) and Lot (Moab, Ammon); frequent subjects of prophetic judgment; Ruth is a Moabite |
| The Hasmoneans | 164-63 BCE | Jewish dynasty that followed the Maccabean revolt; created the religious and political landscape Jesus was born into; produced the Pharisee-Sadducee divide |
| Herod the Great | 37-4 BCE | Roman-appointed king of Judea; rebuilt the Jerusalem Temple; setting of the birth narratives in Matthew and Luke; his death marks the close of the Old Testament world |
Explore Further
Egypt and the Bible
From Joseph to the Exodus to the flight of the holy family, Egypt is woven into the biblical story from beginning to end. What do archaeology and history tell us about Israel's relationship with its great southern neighbor?
Read more →The Philistines
The Philistines were Israel's most persistent early rivals. Who were they, where did they come from, and why did their presence play such a decisive role in the formation of the Israelite monarchy?
Read more →The Arameans
The Aramean kingdoms of Syria were close neighbors of Israel - rivals in war and partners in trade. Aramaic, the language of the Arameans, eventually became the common language of the Near East and was spoken by Jesus himself.
Read more →Edom, Moab, and Ammon
Israel's closest neighbors were also, according to the biblical genealogies, its closest relatives. The complex relationships between these peoples - rivalry, marriage, and judgment - run through the entire Old Testament.
Read more →The Hasmonean Dynasty
The Maccabean family founded a Jewish state that lasted a century. Their rule produced both religious renewal and bitter internal conflict. The world Jesus entered was shaped by a century of Hasmonean rule.
Read more →Herod the Great
Herod was not Jewish by ancestry but ruled Judea by Roman appointment for over 30 years. He rebuilt the Temple on a grand scale. He also ordered the massacre of infants in Bethlehem. Who was this man, and how do we read him?
Read more →